The chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the breakdown of a carbohydrate into pyruvate, with the concomitant production of a small amount of ATP and the reduction of NAD(P) to NAD(P)H. Glycolysis begins with the metabolism of a carbohydrate to generate products that can enter the pathway and ends with the production of pyruvate. Pyruvate may be converted to acetyl-coenzyme A, ethanol, lactate, or other small molecules.

The chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the breakdown of a carbohydrate into pyruvate, with the concomitant production of a small amount of ATP and the reduction of NAD(P) to NAD(P)H. Glycolysis begins with the metabolism of a carbohydrate to generate products that can enter the pathway and ends with the production of pyruvate. Pyruvate may be converted to acetyl-coenzyme A, ethanol, lactate, or other small molecules.

The formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate precursors, such as pyruvate, amino acids and glycerol.

The formation of a double membrane-bounded structure, the autophagosome, that occurs when a specialized membrane sac, called the isolation membrane, starts to enclose a portion of the cytoplasm.

Any process that initiates an immune response.

The cellular synthesis of RNA on a template of DNA.

The glycolytic process that begins with the conversion of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate by glucokinase activity. Glycolytic processes are the chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the breakdown of a carbohydrate into pyruvate, with the concomitant production of a small amount of ATP.

The formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate precursors, such as pyruvate, amino acids and glycerol.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of the fusion of two vacuole membranes to form a single vacuole.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of the fusion of two vacuole membranes to form a single vacuole.

The chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the breakdown of a carbohydrate into pyruvate, with the concomitant production of a small amount of ATP and the reduction of NAD(P) to NAD(P)H. Glycolysis begins with the metabolism of a carbohydrate to generate products that can enter the pathway and ends with the production of pyruvate. Pyruvate may be converted to acetyl-coenzyme A, ethanol, lactate, or other small molecules.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of transcription mediated by RNA polymerase II.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a stimulus from a virus.

Any process that increases the rate, frequency or extent of plasminogen activation. Plasminogen activation is the process in which plasminogen is processed to plasmin.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate, extent or direction of cell growth.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of cellular DNA-templated transcription.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of cellular DNA-templated transcription.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of muscle contraction.

The glycolytic process that begins with the conversion of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate by glucokinase activity. Glycolytic processes are the chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the breakdown of a carbohydrate into pyruvate, with the concomitant production of a small amount of ATP.

Any process that stops, prevents or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of hypoxia-induced intrinsic apoptotic signaling pathway.

Any process that stops, prevents or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of hypoxia-induced intrinsic apoptotic signaling pathway.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of ATP biosynthetic process.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of ATP biosynthetic process.

An interaction with the host organism mediated by a substance in the symbiont cell outer membrane - a lipid bilayer that forms the outermost layer of the symbiont cell envelope. The host is defined as the larger of the organisms involved in a symbiotic interaction.

An interaction between two organisms living together in more or less intimate association. The term host is used for the larger (macro) of the two members of a symbiosis; the various forms of symbiosis include parasitism, commensalism and mutualism.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the embryo in the uterus over time, from formation of the zygote in the oviduct, to birth. An example of this process is found in Mus musculus.

The chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the breakdown of a carbohydrate into pyruvate, with the concomitant production of a small amount of ATP and the reduction of NAD(P) to NAD(P)H. Glycolysis begins with the metabolism of a carbohydrate to generate products that can enter the pathway and ends with the production of pyruvate. Pyruvate may be converted to acetyl-coenzyme A, ethanol, lactate, or other small molecules.

The invasion by an organism of a cell of its host organism. The host is defined as the larger of the organisms involved in a symbiotic interaction.

The invasion by an organism of a cell of its host organism. The host is defined as the larger of the organisms involved in a symbiotic interaction.

An interaction with the host organism mediated by a substance on the surface of the other (symbiont) organism. The host is defined as the larger of the organisms involved in a symbiotic interaction.

A process carried out by symbiont gene products that enables the interaction between two organisms living together in more or less intimate association. The various forms of symbiosis include parasitism, in which the association is disadvantageous or destructive to one of the organisms; mutualism, in which the association is advantageous, or often necessary to one or both and not harmful to either; and commensalism, in which one member of the association benefits while the other is not affected. However, mutualism, parasitism, and commensalism are often not discrete categories of interactions and should rather be perceived as a continuum of interaction ranging from parasitism to mutualism. In fact, the direction of a symbiotic interaction can change during the lifetime of the symbionts due to developmental changes as well as changes in the biotic/abiotic environment in which the interaction occurs. Microscopic symbionts are often referred to as endosymbionts.

The attachment of a symbiont to a host epithelial cell via adhesion molecules, general stickiness etc., either directly or indirectly.

Any process that activates or increases the rate or extent of binding, the selective interaction of a molecule with one or more specific sites on another molecule.

The process of creating protein oligomers, compounds composed of a small number, usually between three and ten, of identical component monomers. Oligomers may be formed by the polymerization of a number of monomers or the depolymerization of a large protein polymer.

The formation of a protein heterotetramer, a macromolecular structure consisting of four noncovalently associated subunits, of which not all are identical.

Any process in which an organism modulates the frequency, rate or extent of the production of nitric oxide as part of the defense response of the host organism. The host is defined as the larger of the organisms involved in a symbiotic interaction.

Any process in which an organism modulates the frequency, rate or extent of the immune response of the host organism; the immune response is any immune system process that functions in the calibrated response of an organism to a potential internal or invasive threat. The host is defined as the larger of the organisms involved in a symbiotic interaction.

The glycolytic process that begins with the conversion of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate by glucokinase activity. Glycolytic processes are the chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the breakdown of a carbohydrate into pyruvate, with the concomitant production of a small amount of ATP.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of an interleukin-7 stimulus.

The formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate precursors, such as pyruvate, amino acids and glycerol.

The formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate precursors, such as pyruvate, amino acids and glycerol.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a cold stimulus, a temperature stimulus below the optimal temperature for that organism.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a light stimulus, electromagnetic radiation of wavelengths classified as infrared, visible or ultraviolet light.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a stimulus indicating an increase or decrease in the concentration of salt (particularly but not exclusively sodium and chloride ions) in the environment.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of an abscisic acid stimulus.

The progression of the substantia nigra over time from its initial formation until its mature state. The substantia nigra is the layer of gray substance that separates the posterior parts of the cerebral peduncles (tegmentum mesencephali) from the anterior parts; it normally includes a posterior compact part with many pigmented cells (pars compacta) and an anterior reticular part whose cells contain little pigment (pars reticularis).

The process in which a multicellular organism, a unicellular organism or a group of unicellular organisms grow in a threadlike, filamentous shape.

The process in which a group of unicellular organisms grow in a threadlike, filamentous shape in response to a biotic (living) stimulus.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a drug stimulus. A drug is a substance used in the diagnosis, treatment or prevention of a disease.

A process that solubilizes fibrin in the bloodstream of a multicellular organism, chiefly by the proteolytic action of plasmin.

Penetration by an organism into the body, tissues, or cells of the host organism. The host is defined as the larger of the organisms involved in a symbiotic interaction.

The activation by an organism of the defense response of the host organism. The host is defined as the larger of the organisms involved in a symbiotic interaction.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a cadmium (Cd) ion stimulus.

The glycolytic process that begins with the conversion of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate by glucokinase activity. Glycolytic processes are the chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the breakdown of a carbohydrate into pyruvate, with the concomitant production of a small amount of ATP.

An intracellular protein kinase cascade containing at least ERK1 or ERK2 (MAPKs), a MEK (a MAPKK) and a MAP3K. The cascade may involve 4 different kinases, as it can also contain an additional tier: the upstream MAP4K. The kinases in each tier phosphorylate and activate the kinase in the downstream tier to transmit a signal within a cell.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a stimulus indicating lowered oxygen tension. Hypoxia, defined as a decline in O2 levels below normoxic levels of 20.8 - 20.95%, results in metabolic adaptation at both the cellular and organismal level.

A process that results in the biosynthesis of constituent macromolecules, assembly, arrangement of constituent parts, or disassembly of a fungal-type cell wall.

The formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate precursors, such as pyruvate, amino acids and glycerol.

The chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the breakdown of a carbohydrate into pyruvate, with the concomitant production of a small amount of ATP and the reduction of NAD(P) to NAD(P)H. Glycolysis begins with the metabolism of a carbohydrate to generate products that can enter the pathway and ends with the production of pyruvate. Pyruvate may be converted to acetyl-coenzyme A, ethanol, lactate, or other small molecules.

A developmental process that is a deterioration and loss of function over time. Aging includes loss of functions such as resistance to disease, homeostasis, and fertility, as well as wear and tear. Aging includes cellular senescence, but is more inclusive. May precede death and may succeed developmental maturation (GO:0021700).

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a cytokinin stimulus.

The process in which the structures of a hair cell (trichome) cell are generated and organized. This process occurs while the initially relatively unspecialized epidermal cell is acquiring the specialized features of a hair cell. An example of this process is found in Arabidopsis thaliana.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of an organic cyclic compound stimulus.

A series of processes that forms an integrated mechanism by which a cell or an organism detects the depletion of primary carbon sources and then activates genes to scavenge the last traces of the primary carbon source and to transport and metabolize alternative carbon sources such as carbon dioxide or carbonic acid. The utilization process begins when the cell or organism detects carbon levels, includes the activation of genes whose products detect, transport or metabolize carbon-containing substances, and ends when carbon is incorporated into the cell or organism's metabolism.

An immune response against bacteria mediated through a body fluid. Examples of this process are the antibacterial humoral responses in Mus musculus and Drosophila melanogaster.

A reproduction process that creates a new organism by combining the genetic material of two gametes, which may come from two organisms or from a single organism, in the case of self-fertilizing hermaphrodites, e.g. C. elegans, or self-fertilization in plants. It occurs both in eukaryotes and prokaryotes: in multicellular eukaryotic organisms, an individual is created anew; in prokaryotes, the initial cell has additional or transformed genetic material. In a process called genetic recombination, genetic material (DNA) originating from two gametes join up so that homologous sequences are aligned with each other, and this is followed by exchange of genetic information. After the new recombinant chromosome is formed, it is passed on to progeny.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of stimulus by estradiol, a C18 steroid hormone hydroxylated at C3 and C17 that acts as a potent estrogen.

Any process involved in the maintenance of an internal steady state of glucose within an organism or cell.

The regrowth of skeletal muscle tissue to repair injured or damaged muscle fibers in the postnatal stage.

The process in which a symbiont organism effects a change in the structure or processes of its host organism.

An interaction with the host organism mediated by a substance on the surface of the other (symbiont) organism. The host is defined as the larger of the organisms involved in a symbiotic interaction.

An interaction with the host organism mediated by a substance in the symbiont cell outer membrane - a lipid bilayer that forms the outermost layer of the symbiont cell envelope. The host is defined as the larger of the organisms involved in a symbiotic interaction.

The process, occurring above the cellular level, that is pertinent to the reproductive function of a multicellular organism. This includes the integrated processes at the level of tissues and organs.

The process of creating protein oligomers, compounds composed of a small number, usually between three and ten, of identical component monomers. Oligomers may be formed by the polymerization of a number of monomers or the depolymerization of a large protein polymer.

Any process that activates, maintains or increases the frequency, rate or extent of fibrinolysis, an ongoing process that solubilizes fibrin, resulting in the removal of small blood clots.

Any process in which an organism stops or prevents itself undergoing phagocytosis into a cell in the host organism. The host is defined as the larger of the organisms involved in a symbiotic interaction.

Any process in which an organism activates, maintains or increases the frequency, rate or extent of the defense response of the host organism. The host is defined as the larger of the organisms involved in a symbiotic interaction.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of the internalization of bacteria, immune complexes and other particulate matter or of an apoptotic cell by phagocytosis.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a stimulus indicating an increase or decrease in the concentration of solutes outside the organism or cell.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a farnesol stimulus.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of neuron death.

Any process that stops, prevents or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of neuron death.

The part of the cytoplasm that does not contain organelles but which does contain other particulate matter, such as protein complexes.

A multimeric enzyme complex, usually a dimer or an octamer, that catalyzes the conversion of 2-phospho-D-glycerate to phosphoenolpyruvate and water.

The part of the cytoplasm that does not contain organelles but which does contain other particulate matter, such as protein complexes.

A lipid bilayer along with all the proteins and protein complexes embedded in it an attached to it.

Any of the various filamentous elements that form the internal framework of cells, and typically remain after treatment of the cells with mild detergent to remove membrane constituents and soluble components of the cytoplasm. The term embraces intermediate filaments, microfilaments, microtubules, the microtrabecular lattice, and other structures characterized by a polymeric filamentous nature and long-range order within the cell. The various elements of the cytoskeleton not only serve in the maintenance of cellular shape but also have roles in other cellular functions, including cellular movement, cell division, endocytosis, and movement of organelles.

The rigid or semi-rigid envelope lying outside the cell membrane of plant, fungal, most prokaryotic cells and some protozoan parasites, maintaining their shape and protecting them from osmotic lysis. In plants it is made of cellulose and, often, lignin; in fungi it is composed largely of polysaccharides; in bacteria it is composed of peptidoglycan; in protozoan parasites such as Giardia species, it's made of carbohydrates and proteins.

The membrane surrounding a cell that separates the cell from its external environment. It consists of a phospholipid bilayer and associated proteins.

All of the contents of a cell excluding the plasma membrane and nucleus, but including other subcellular structures.

The external part of the cell wall and/or plasma membrane.

A membrane-bounded organelle of eukaryotic cells in which chromosomes are housed and replicated. In most cells, the nucleus contains all of the cell's chromosomes except the organellar chromosomes, and is the site of RNA synthesis and processing. In some species, or in specialized cell types, RNA metabolism or DNA replication may be absent.

A lipid bilayer along with all the proteins and protein complexes embedded in it an attached to it.

The part of the cytoplasm that does not contain organelles but which does contain other particulate matter, such as protein complexes.

The membrane surrounding a cell that separates the cell from its external environment. It consists of a phospholipid bilayer and associated proteins.

That part of a multicellular organism outside the cells proper, usually taken to be outside the plasma membranes, and occupied by fluid.

Any of the various filamentous elements that form the internal framework of cells, and typically remain after treatment of the cells with mild detergent to remove membrane constituents and soluble components of the cytoplasm. The term embraces intermediate filaments, microfilaments, microtubules, the microtrabecular lattice, and other structures characterized by a polymeric filamentous nature and long-range order within the cell. The various elements of the cytoskeleton not only serve in the maintenance of cellular shape but also have roles in other cellular functions, including cellular movement, cell division, endocytosis, and movement of organelles.

Vacuole within a parasite used for digestion of the host cell cytoplasm. An example of this component is found in the Apicomplexa.

A vesicle that is released into the extracellular region by fusion of the limiting endosomal membrane of a multivesicular body with the plasma membrane. Extracellular exosomes, also simply called exosomes, have a diameter of about 40-100 nm.

A semiautonomous, self replicating organelle that occurs in varying numbers, shapes, and sizes in the cytoplasm of virtually all eukaryotic cells. It is notably the site of tissue respiration.

All of the contents of a cilium, excluding the plasma membrane surrounding the cilium.

A vacuole that has both lytic and storage functions. The fungal vacuole is a large, membrane-bounded organelle that functions as a reservoir for the storage of small molecules (including polyphosphate, amino acids, several divalent cations (e.g. calcium), other ions, and other small molecules) as well as being the primary compartment for degradation. It is an acidic compartment, containing an ensemble of acid hydrolases. At least in S. cerevisiae, there are indications that the morphology of the vacuole is variable and correlated with the cell cycle, with logarithmically growing cells having a multilobed, reticulated vacuole, while stationary phase cells contain a single large structure.

A semiautonomous, self replicating organelle that occurs in varying numbers, shapes, and sizes in the cytoplasm of virtually all eukaryotic cells. It is notably the site of tissue respiration.

The complete extent of cell cortex that underlies some some region of the plasma membrane

A membrane-bounded organelle of eukaryotic cells in which chromosomes are housed and replicated. In most cells, the nucleus contains all of the cell's chromosomes except the organellar chromosomes, and is the site of RNA synthesis and processing. In some species, or in specialized cell types, RNA metabolism or DNA replication may be absent.

All of the contents of a cell excluding the plasma membrane and nucleus, but including other subcellular structures.

The part of the cytoplasm that does not contain organelles but which does contain other particulate matter, such as protein complexes.

The rigid or semi-rigid envelope lying outside the cell membrane of plant, fungal, most prokaryotic cells and some protozoan parasites, maintaining their shape and protecting them from osmotic lysis. In plants it is made of cellulose and, often, lignin; in fungi it is composed largely of polysaccharides; in bacteria it is composed of peptidoglycan; in protozoan parasites such as Giardia species, it's made of carbohydrates and proteins.

A membrane-bounded organelle of eukaryotic cells in which chromosomes are housed and replicated. In most cells, the nucleus contains all of the cell's chromosomes except the organellar chromosomes, and is the site of RNA synthesis and processing. In some species, or in specialized cell types, RNA metabolism or DNA replication may be absent.

The membrane surrounding a cell that separates the cell from its external environment. It consists of a phospholipid bilayer and associated proteins.

A lipid bilayer along with all the proteins and protein complexes embedded in it an attached to it.

The side of the outer membrane that is opposite to the side that faces the periplasm of the cell.

A multimeric enzyme complex, usually a dimer or an octamer, that catalyzes the conversion of 2-phospho-D-glycerate to phosphoenolpyruvate and water.

The space external to the outermost structure of a cell. For cells without external protective or external encapsulating structures this refers to space outside of the plasma membrane. This term covers the host cell environment outside an intracellular parasite.

All of the contents of a cell excluding the plasma membrane and nucleus, but including other subcellular structures.

All of the contents of a cell excluding the plasma membrane and nucleus, but including other subcellular structures.

The leaflet the plasma membrane that faces the cytoplasm and any proteins embedded or anchored in it or attached to its surface.

The external part of the cell wall and/or plasma membrane.

The migrating motile tip of a growing neuron projection, where actin accumulates, and the actin cytoskeleton is the most dynamic.

A prolongation or process extending from a nerve cell, e.g. an axon or dendrite.

An electrically insulating fatty layer that surrounds the axons of many neurons. It is an outgrowth of glial cells: Schwann cells supply the myelin for peripheral neurons while oligodendrocytes supply it to those of the central nervous system.

Any of the small (10-200 nm), heterogeneous, highly dynamic, sterol- and sphingolipid-enriched membrane domains that compartmentalize cellular processes. Small rafts can sometimes be stabilized to form larger platforms through protein-protein and protein-lipid interactions.

A specialized area of membrane on either the presynaptic or the postsynaptic side of a synapse, the junction between a nerve fiber of one neuron and another neuron or muscle fiber or glial cell.

The complete extent of cell cortex that underlies some some region of the plasma membrane

A chlorophyll-containing plastid with thylakoids organized into grana and frets, or stroma thylakoids, and embedded in a stroma.

The leaflet of the plasma membrane that faces away from the cytoplasm and any proteins embedded or anchored in it or attached to its surface.

The component of a plasma membrane consisting of gene products and protein complexes that are loosely bound to one of its surfaces, but not integrated into the hydrophobic region.

The structure enclosing certain parasite cells such as certain apicomplexa and Euglenozoa; consists of the cell membrane with its associated infrastructure of microtubules, microfilaments and other organelles.

The migrating motile tip of a growing neuron projection, where actin accumulates, and the actin cytoskeleton is the most dynamic.

A prolongation or process extending from a nerve cell, e.g. an axon or dendrite.

Any of the small (10-200 nm), heterogeneous, highly dynamic, sterol- and sphingolipid-enriched membrane domains that compartmentalize cellular processes. Small rafts can sometimes be stabilized to form larger platforms through protein-protein and protein-lipid interactions.

A specialized area of membrane on either the presynaptic or the postsynaptic side of a synapse, the junction between a nerve fiber of one neuron and another neuron or muscle fiber or glial cell.

A multimeric enzyme complex, usually a dimer or an octamer, that catalyzes the conversion of 2-phospho-D-glycerate to phosphoenolpyruvate and water.

A multimeric enzyme complex, usually a dimer or an octamer, that catalyzes the conversion of 2-phospho-D-glycerate to phosphoenolpyruvate and water.

The inner segment of a vertebrate photoreceptor containing mitochondria, ribosomes and membranes where opsin molecules are assembled and passed to be part of the outer segment discs.

The double lipid bilayer enclosing the mitochondrion and separating its contents from the cell cytoplasm; includes the intermembrane space.

A rigid yet dynamic structure surrounding the plasma membrane that affords protection from stresses and contributes to cell morphogenesis, consisting of extensively cross-linked glycoproteins and carbohydrates. The glycoproteins may be modified with N- or O-linked carbohydrates, or glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchors; the polysaccharides are primarily branched glucans, including beta-linked and alpha-linked glucans, and may also include chitin and other carbohydrate polymers, but not cellulose or pectin. Enzymes involved in cell wall biosynthesis are also found in the cell wall. Note that some forms of fungi develop a capsule outside of the cell wall under certain circumstances; this is considered a separate structure.

A fine cytoplasmic channel, found in all higher plants, that connects the cytoplasm of one cell to that of an adjacent cell.

The wall surrounding a cell of a dimorphic fungus growing in the single-cell budding yeast form, in contrast to the filamentous or hyphal form.

The cell wall surrounding a fungal hypha.

The portion of a neuron that includes the nucleus, but excludes cell projections such as axons and dendrites.

The portion of the cell soma (neuronal cell body) that excludes the nucleus.

The cell membranes and intracellular regions in a plant are connected through plasmodesmata, and plants may be described as having two major compartments: the living symplast and the non-living apoplast. The apoplast is external to the plasma membrane and includes cell walls, intercellular spaces and the lumen of dead structures such as xylem vessels. Water and solutes pass freely through it.

An extracellular matrix lying external to fungal cells. The fungal biofilm matrix consists of polysaccharides, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Fungal biofilms mediate adherence to host tissues, and provide protection from host immune defenses.

A multimeric enzyme complex, usually a dimer or an octamer, that catalyzes the conversion of 2-phospho-D-glycerate to phosphoenolpyruvate and water.

The space enclosed by the double membrane of a chloroplast but excluding the thylakoid space. It contains DNA, ribosomes and some temporary products of photosynthesis.

The leaflet of the plasma membrane that faces away from the cytoplasm and any proteins embedded or anchored in it or attached to its surface.

The side of the cell wall that is opposite to the side that faces the cell and its contents.

A structure lying external to one or more cells, which provides structural support, biochemical or biomechanical cues for cells or tissues.