The hydrolysis of proteins into smaller polypeptides and/or amino acids by cleavage of their peptide bonds.

The hydrolysis of proteins into smaller polypeptides and/or amino acids by cleavage of their peptide bonds.

The hydrolysis of proteins into smaller polypeptides and/or amino acids by cleavage of their peptide bonds.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the liver over time, from its formation to the mature structure. The liver is an exocrine gland which secretes bile and functions in metabolism of protein and carbohydrate and fat, synthesizes substances involved in the clotting of the blood, synthesizes vitamin A, detoxifies poisonous substances, stores glycogen, and breaks down worn-out erythrocytes.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of an interleukin-2 stimulus.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of stimulus by an estrogen, C18 steroid hormones that can stimulate the development of female sexual characteristics.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a xenobiotic compound stimulus. Xenobiotic compounds are compounds foreign to living organisms.

Any process that stops, prevents or reduces the rate of addition of phosphate groups to amino acids within a protein.

An endocytosis process that results in the engulfment of external particulate material by phagocytes. The particles are initially contained within phagocytic vacuoles (phagosomes), which then fuse with primary lysosomes to effect digestion of the particles.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of muscle contraction.

The process in which the anatomical structures of the imaginal disc-derived wing are generated and organized. The wing is an appendage modified for flying.

The memory process that deals with the storage, retrieval and modification of information a long time (typically weeks, months or years) after receiving that information. This type of memory is typically dependent on gene transcription regulated by second messenger activation.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of complement activation.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of actin polymerization.

Signaling between cells of equivalent developmental potential that results in these cells adopting different developmental fates. An example is the suppression by cells with a particular fate of the adoption of the same fate by surrounding cells.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of transcription from an RNA polymerase II promoter.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of transcription from an RNA polymerase II promoter.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the skeleton over time, from its formation to the mature structure. The skeleton is the bony framework of the body in vertebrates (endoskeleton) or the hard outer envelope of insects (exoskeleton or dermoskeleton).

The process that modulates the level of angiotensin in the blood by balancing the maturation of renin substrate to mature angiotensin and the catabolism of mature angiotensin.

The process leading to the attainment of the full functional capacity of angiotensin by conversion of renin substrate into mature angiotensin in the blood.

The process in which the left cardiac ventricle is generated and organized.

The process in which the left cardiac ventricle is generated and organized.

Any process that increases the rate, frequency, or extent of the controlled release of molecules that form the extracellular matrix, including carbohydrates and glycoproteins by a cell or a group of cells.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of cellular DNA-templated transcription.

The covalent alteration of one or more amino acids occurring in proteins, peptides and nascent polypeptides (co-translational, post-translational modifications) occurring at the level of an individual cell. Includes the modification of charged tRNAs that are destined to occur in a protein (pre-translation modification).

The covalent attachment of a lipid group to the carboxy terminus of a protein.

The hydrolysis of proteins into smaller polypeptides and/or amino acids by cleavage of their peptide bonds.

The hydrolysis of proteins into smaller polypeptides and/or amino acids by cleavage of their peptide bonds.

The chemical reactions and pathways involving peptides, compounds of two or more amino acids where the alpha carboxyl group of one is bound to the alpha amino group of another.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of muscle contraction.

The chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the breakdown of a protein in the vacuole, usually by the action of vacuolar proteases.

The series of molecular signals generated as a consequence of a peptide neurotransmitter binding to a cell surface receptor.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the muscle over time, from its formation to the mature structure. The muscle is an organ consisting of a tissue made up of various elongated cells that are specialized to contract and thus to produce movement and mechanical work.

The whole of the physical, chemical, and biochemical processes carried out by multicellular organisms to break down ingested nutrients into components that may be easily absorbed and directed into metabolism.

The chemical reactions and pathways, including anabolism and catabolism, by which living organisms transform chemical substances. Metabolic processes typically transform small molecules, but also include macromolecular processes such as DNA repair and replication, and protein synthesis and degradation.

A cellular process that results in the biosynthesis of constituent macromolecules, assembly, and arrangement of constituent parts of a fungal-type cell wall. The fungal-type cell wall contains beta-glucan and may contain chitin.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a heat stimulus, a temperature stimulus above the optimal temperature for that organism.

The process in which anatomical structures are generated and organized. Morphogenesis pertains to the creation of form.

Any process that decreases the rate, frequency or extent of plasminogen activation. Plasminogen activation is the process in which plasminogen is processed to plasmin.

The chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the breakdown of the peptide bradykinin.

The regulated release of acetylcholine by a cell. The acetylcholine acts as a neurotransmitter that acts in both the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and central nervous system (CNS).

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of the regulated release of acetylcholine.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of the regulated release of acetylcholine.

The series of molecular signals initiated by binding of a Wnt protein to a frizzled family receptor on the surface of the target cell and ending with a change in cell state.

The series of molecular signals initiated by binding of a Wnt protein to a frizzled family receptor on the surface of the target cell and ending with a change in cell state.

Any protein maturation process achieved by the cleavage of a peptide bond or bonds within a protein. Protein maturation is the process leading to the attainment of the full functional capacity of a protein.

Any protein maturation process achieved by the cleavage of a peptide bond or bonds within a protein. Protein maturation is the process leading to the attainment of the full functional capacity of a protein.

Any protein maturation process achieved by the cleavage of a peptide bond or bonds within a protein. Protein maturation is the process leading to the attainment of the full functional capacity of a protein.

The generation of a mature peptide hormone by posttranslational processing of a prohormone.

The modification of a histone by the addition of an acetyl group.

The formation of mature insulin by proteolysis of the precursor preproinsulin. The signal sequence is first cleaved from preproinsulin to form proinsulin; proinsulin is then cleaved to release the C peptide, leaving the A and B chains of mature insulin linked by disulfide bridges.

The formation of mature insulin by proteolysis of the precursor preproinsulin. The signal sequence is first cleaved from preproinsulin to form proinsulin; proinsulin is then cleaved to release the C peptide, leaving the A and B chains of mature insulin linked by disulfide bridges.

Feeding behavior in a larval (immature) organism.

The formation of mature enkephalin, a pentapeptide hormone involved in regulating pain and nociception in the body by proteolytic processing of enkephalin propeptide.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a drug stimulus. A drug is a substance used in the diagnosis, treatment or prevention of a disease.

A process that solubilizes fibrin in the bloodstream of a multicellular organism, chiefly by the proteolytic action of plasmin.

The chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the breakdown of peptides, compounds of 2 or more (but usually less than 100) amino acids where the alpha carboxyl group of one is bound to the alpha amino group of another.

The chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the formation of organic and inorganic nitrogenous compounds.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of synaptic growth at neuromuscular junction.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a glucocorticoid stimulus. Glucocorticoids are hormonal C21 corticosteroids synthesized from cholesterol with the ability to bind with the cortisol receptor and trigger similar effects. Glucocorticoids act primarily on carbohydrate and protein metabolism, and have anti-inflammatory effects.

The hydrolysis of a peptide bond or bonds within a protein as part of the chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the breakdown of a protein by individual cells.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of fibrinolysis, an ongoing process that solubilizes fibrin, resulting in the removal of small blood clots.

Any process that increases the frequency, rate or extent of a digestive system process, a physical, chemical, or biochemical process carried out by living organisms to break down ingested nutrients into components that may be easily absorbed and directed into metabolism.

Any protein maturation process achieved by the cleavage of a peptide bond or bonds within a neuropeptide precursor. Processing leads to the attainment of the full functional capacity of the neuropeptide.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a carbon dioxide (CO2) stimulus.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a glucose stimulus.

A process in which a protein is transported to, or maintained in, a specific location in a membrane.

A process in which a protein is transported to, or maintained in, a specific location in a membrane.

Any process that increases the frequency, rate, or extent of the self-propelled movement of a cell or organism from one location to another in a behavioral context; the aspect of locomotory behavior having to do with movement.

The regrowth of lost or destroyed liver.

Any process that stops, prevents or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of pharyngeal pumping.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of eating behavior.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of branching morphogenesis of a nerve.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of defecation.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of defecation.

Any process that stops, prevents or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of hepatocyte proliferation.

That part of a multicellular organism outside the cells proper, usually taken to be outside the plasma membranes, and occupied by fluid.

A vesicle that is released into the extracellular region by fusion of the limiting endosomal membrane of a multivesicular body with the plasma membrane. Extracellular exosomes, also simply called exosomes, have a diameter of about 40-100 nm.

A vesicle that is released into the extracellular region by fusion of the limiting endosomal membrane of a multivesicular body with the plasma membrane. Extracellular exosomes, also simply called exosomes, have a diameter of about 40-100 nm.

The space external to the outermost structure of a cell. For cells without external protective or external encapsulating structures this refers to space outside of the plasma membrane. This term covers the host cell environment outside an intracellular parasite.

Cytoplasm situated near, or occurring around, the nucleus.

The space external to the outermost structure of a cell. For cells without external protective or external encapsulating structures this refers to space outside of the plasma membrane. This term covers the host cell environment outside an intracellular parasite.

The component of a membrane consisting of the gene products and protein complexes having at least some part of their peptide sequence embedded in the hydrophobic region of the membrane.

That part of a multicellular organism outside the cells proper, usually taken to be outside the plasma membranes, and occupied by fluid.

A membrane-bounded organelle of eukaryotic cells in which chromosomes are housed and replicated. In most cells, the nucleus contains all of the cell's chromosomes except the organellar chromosomes, and is the site of RNA synthesis and processing. In some species, or in specialized cell types, RNA metabolism or DNA replication may be absent.

The network of interconnected tubular and cisternal structures located within the Golgi apparatus on the side distal to the endoplasmic reticulum, from which secretory vesicles emerge. The trans-Golgi network is important in the later stages of protein secretion where it is thought to play a key role in the sorting and targeting of secreted proteins to the correct destination.

A collection of membranous structures involved in transport within the cell. The main components of the endomembrane system are endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies, vesicles, cell membrane and nuclear envelope. Members of the endomembrane system pass materials through each other or though the use of vesicles.

A lipid bilayer along with all the proteins and protein complexes embedded in it an attached to it.

A lipid bilayer along with all the proteins and protein complexes embedded in it an attached to it.

A lipid bilayer along with all the proteins and protein complexes embedded in it an attached to it.

The component of a membrane consisting of the gene products and protein complexes having at least some part of their peptide sequence embedded in the hydrophobic region of the membrane.

Organized structure of distinctive morphology and function, bounded by a single or double lipid bilayer membrane and occurring within the cell. Includes the nucleus, mitochondria, plastids, vacuoles, and vesicles. Excludes the plasma membrane.

That part of a multicellular organism outside the cells proper, usually taken to be outside the plasma membranes, and occupied by fluid.

That part of a multicellular organism outside the cells proper, usually taken to be outside the plasma membranes, and occupied by fluid.

A compound membranous cytoplasmic organelle of eukaryotic cells, consisting of flattened, ribosome-free vesicles arranged in a more or less regular stack. The Golgi apparatus differs from the endoplasmic reticulum in often having slightly thicker membranes, appearing in sections as a characteristic shallow semicircle so that the convex side (cis or entry face) abuts the endoplasmic reticulum, secretory vesicles emerging from the concave side (trans or exit face). In vertebrate cells there is usually one such organelle, while in invertebrates and plants, where they are known usually as dictyosomes, there may be several scattered in the cytoplasm. The Golgi apparatus processes proteins produced on the ribosomes of the rough endoplasmic reticulum; such processing includes modification of the core oligosaccharides of glycoproteins, and the sorting and packaging of proteins for transport to a variety of cellular locations. Three different regions of the Golgi are now recognized both in terms of structure and function: cis, in the vicinity of the cis face, trans, in the vicinity of the trans face, and medial, lying between the cis and trans regions.

The membrane surrounding a cell that separates the cell from its external environment. It consists of a phospholipid bilayer and associated proteins.

The lipid bilayer surrounding a secretory granule.

The portion of a neuron that includes the nucleus, but excludes cell projections such as axons and dendrites.

The component of the plasma membrane consisting of the gene products that are tethered to the membrane only by a covalently attached anchor, such as a lipid group, that is embedded in the membrane. Gene products with peptide sequences that are embedded in the membrane are excluded from this grouping.

The space external to the outermost structure of a cell. For cells without external protective or external encapsulating structures this refers to space outside of the plasma membrane. This term covers the host cell environment outside an intracellular parasite.

A layer consisting mainly of proteins (especially collagen) and glycosaminoglycans (mostly as proteoglycans) that forms a sheet underlying or overlying cells such as endothelial and epithelial cells. The proteins are secreted by cells in the vicinity. An example of this component is found in Mus musculus.

All of the contents of a cell excluding the plasma membrane and nucleus, but including other subcellular structures.

The irregular network of unit membranes, visible only by electron microscopy, that occurs in the cytoplasm of many eukaryotic cells. The membranes form a complex meshwork of tubular channels, which are often expanded into slitlike cavities called cisternae. The ER takes two forms, rough (or granular), with ribosomes adhering to the outer surface, and smooth (with no ribosomes attached).

A compound membranous cytoplasmic organelle of eukaryotic cells, consisting of flattened, ribosome-free vesicles arranged in a more or less regular stack. The Golgi apparatus differs from the endoplasmic reticulum in often having slightly thicker membranes, appearing in sections as a characteristic shallow semicircle so that the convex side (cis or entry face) abuts the endoplasmic reticulum, secretory vesicles emerging from the concave side (trans or exit face). In vertebrate cells there is usually one such organelle, while in invertebrates and plants, where they are known usually as dictyosomes, there may be several scattered in the cytoplasm. The Golgi apparatus processes proteins produced on the ribosomes of the rough endoplasmic reticulum; such processing includes modification of the core oligosaccharides of glycoproteins, and the sorting and packaging of proteins for transport to a variety of cellular locations. Three different regions of the Golgi are now recognized both in terms of structure and function: cis, in the vicinity of the cis face, trans, in the vicinity of the trans face, and medial, lying between the cis and trans regions.

The external part of the cell wall and/or plasma membrane.

The external part of the cell wall and/or plasma membrane.

The lipid bilayer surrounding an endosome.

A small subcellular vesicle, surrounded by a membrane, that is formed from the Golgi apparatus and contains a highly concentrated protein destined for secretion. Secretory granules move towards the periphery of the cell and upon stimulation, their membranes fuse with the cell membrane, and their protein load is exteriorized. Processing of the contained protein may take place in secretory granules.

A small subcellular vesicle, surrounded by a membrane, that is formed from the Golgi apparatus and contains a highly concentrated protein destined for secretion. Secretory granules move towards the periphery of the cell and upon stimulation, their membranes fuse with the cell membrane, and their protein load is exteriorized. Processing of the contained protein may take place in secretory granules.

The long process of a neuron that conducts nerve impulses, usually away from the cell body to the terminals and varicosities, which are sites of storage and release of neurotransmitter.

A neuron projection that has a short, tapering, often branched, morphology, receives and integrates signals from other neurons or from sensory stimuli, and conducts a nerve impulse towards the axon or the cell body. In most neurons, the impulse is conveyed from dendrites to axon via the cell body, but in some types of unipolar neuron, the impulse does not travel via the cell body.

The lipid bilayer surrounding a secretory granule.

Electron-dense organelle with a granular internal matrix; contains proteins destined to be secreted.

A vesicle found in the cytoplasm of a cell.

Any small, fluid-filled, spherical organelle enclosed by membrane.

The portion of the cell soma (neuronal cell body) that excludes the nucleus.

Any of the small (10-200 nm), heterogeneous, highly dynamic, sterol- and sphingolipid-enriched membrane domains that compartmentalize cellular processes. Small rafts can sometimes be stabilized to form larger platforms through protein-protein and protein-lipid interactions.

A collagen and cuticulin-based noncellular, multilayered structure that is synthesized by an underlying ectodermal (hypodermal) cell layer. The cuticle serves essential functions in body morphology, locomotion, and environmental protection. An example of this component is found in Caenorhabditis elegans.

A specialized area of membrane on either the presynaptic or the postsynaptic side of a synapse, the junction between a nerve fiber of one neuron and another neuron or muscle fiber or glial cell.